- 法律方法(第22卷)
- 陳金釗 謝暉
- 3433字
- 2019-11-22 16:45:03
六、結論
盡管這些年來,對論題的使用已經越來越少,這篇文章意在引起人們對論題之實用價值的注意。正如我們所爭論的,有時候,我們是“只見樹木,不見森林”。在論證理論方面,我認為,我們同樣也已經忽略了如何處理諸如論證的定位和建構等問題。發現和提出論證似乎很簡單,但是對于大多數學生和專業人士而言,論證是令人沮喪的,令人畏懼的,復雜的和無法逾越的。對于定位論證和建構論證而言,論題是非常重要的。然而,它們不僅僅是前提和結論的連接(建構論證),或者是論證的發現(定位論證)。它們同樣可以幫助我們的批判性思維能力和論證教學工作。此外,了解論題在當代的論證理論中是如何幫助構建和定位論證,將會使我們做得更好。因為它能幫助我們去揭露論證中更為深層次的意義,它們幫助我們更為成功的教授論證,它們幫助我們更為快速和有效的形成論證,它們幫助我們去依靠和增強當代的論證理論,它們幫助我們去識別和理解論證,它們幫助我們更為有效的,以更有成效的方式去評價和反駁論證,因此,論題是極為有用的和重要的。
我已經討論了在當代論證理論中,使用論題的至少四個好處:定位論證,建構論證,發展批判性思維能力,和教授論證和辯論。在這些和其他的方面,論題應該被重新發現并作為有用的工具,來改善論證的教學。正如我在討論教學時所描述的,對于所有的起步或高級的論證者而言,論題使論證教學變得簡化。對論題的使用,可以使我們去面對任何與論證指導相關的任務。當我們向學生宣傳我們的課程,或向教學管理員討論教學時,即便是使用我們自己的論題,都將會產生巨大的影響。簡而言之,論題對于我們的教學方法將會有非常重要的意義。
在一個比以往任何時候有更為較少的學生去學習論證的同時,但是任何一個人又同樣需要比以往任何時候去學習論證的時代,通過遺忘論題系統,我們短期的改變了自己。如果我們想要將學生吸引到課程上來,提升公民的批判性思維能力,將我們非常重要的努力同普通人和管理者聯系起來,我們必須不能忘記我們是如何到達我們現在所在的地方的。我們必須不能忘記我們是如何定義,定位以及花費我們的生活去探索和論證。我們必須不能忘記亞里士多德寫作《修辭學》的第一位的、主要的原因是:為了提供一個可用的指導使論證易于操作,以至于任何人都可以練習修辭學。論題幫助我們記住了論證的這些非常重要的方面。
[1]本文系江蘇省普通高校學術學位研究生創新項目《可廢止性:法律方法的一個分析視角》(項目編號:KYZZ16_0433)的階段性成果。
[2]約瑟夫·佐佩蒂(J.P.Zompetti),美國伊利諾伊州立大學教授。研究領域為:論證、修辭和公民參與。他所教授的課程通常涉及到修辭理論、修辭批判、市民參與與社會行動等方面。此文發表于《論證》,2006年第20期,15~28頁。此文的翻譯已經獲得作者的書面授權。
[3]高偉偉,男,江蘇揚州人,南京師范大學法學院博士生,研究方向為法律論證。
[4]Braet,A.C,The Oldest Typology of Argumentation Schemes,18 Argumentation,2004,pp.127~148.
[5]Ochs,D.J,The Tradition of the Classical Doctrines of Rhetorical Topoi,PhD Dissertation,University of Iowa,1966.
[6]Id.
[7]Kienpointner,M,On the Art of Finding Arguments:What Ancient and Modern Masters of Invention Have to Tell us About the“Ars Inveniendi”,11 Argumentation,1997,pp.225~236.
[8]Vancil,D.L,Historical Barriers to a Modern System of Topoi,43 Western Journal of Speech Communication,1979,pp.26~37.
[9]Perelman,C.and L.Olbrechts-Tyteca,The New Rhetoric:A Treatise on Argumentation,Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,1969.
[10][譯者注]:拉丁文loci是locus的復數形式。指的是位置或地點。對佩雷爾曼和奧爾布雷希特·泰特卡關于loci的探討的檢驗可以參見如下二手資源:Frans Hendrik van Eemeren,Fundamentals for Argumentation Theory:A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments,Mahwah:Erlbaum,1996;Wallace,K.R,Topoi and the Problem of Invention,58 Quarterly Journal of Speech,1972,pp387~395.
[11]Perelman,C.and L.Olbrechts-Tyteca,The New Rhetoric:A Treatise on Argumentation,Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,1969,p85.
[12]Ochs,D.J,The Tradition of the Classical Doctrines of Rhetorical Topoi,PhD Dissertation,University of Iowa,1966.
[13]Id.at 1.
[14]Id.at 43.
[15]Id.at 45.
[16]Kienpointner,M,On the Art of Finding Arguments:What Ancient and Modern Masters of Invention Have to Tell us About the“Ars Inveniendi”,11 Argumentation,1997,pp.225~236.
[17]De Pater,W.A,La fonction du lieu et de l’instrument dans les Topiques,in G.E.L.Owen(ed.),Aristotle on Dialectic:The Topics,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1968,pp.164~188.
[18]Kienpointner,M,On the Art of Finding Arguments:What Ancient and Modern Masters of Invention Have to Tell us About the“Ars Inveniendi”,11 Argumentation,1997,pp.225~236.
[19]Walton,D,Argumentation Schemes for Presumptive Reasoning,Lawrence Erlbaum,Mahwah,NJ,1996.
[20]Eemeren,F.H.van,R.Grootendorst and F.S.Henkemans,Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory:A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments,Lawrence Erlbaum,Mahwah,NJ,1996.
[21]Id.at 38.
[22]為了了解更多的關于“在論證中的語言”,(同樣被人知曉的“在語言內的論證”)的討論,包括論題和語義學之間的關系問題,請參見Raccah,P.Y,Modelling Argumentation and Modeling with Argumentation,4 Argumentation,1990,pp.447~483.Varzi,A.C,An Essay in Universal Semantics,Dordrecht:Kluwer,1999.
[23]Jost,W,Teaching the Topics:Character,Rhetoric,and Liberal Education,21 Rhetoric Society Quarterly,1991,p.1~16.
[24]Fahenstock,J.and M.Secor,The Rhetoric of Literary Criticism,in Bazerman Charles and Paradis James,(ed.),Textual Dynamics of the Professions:Historical and Contemporary Studies of Writing in Professional Communities,Madison:University of Wisconsin Press,1991,pp.76~96.
[25]Miller,C,Aristotle's‘special Topics’in Rhetorical Practice and Pedagogy,17 Rhetoric Society Quarterly,1987,pp.61~70.
[26]Rieke,R.D.and M.O.Sillars,Argumentation:Critical Decision Making,New York:Harper Collins,1993,pp.25~26.
[27]Solmsen,F.,Die entwicklung der Aristotelischen Logic und Rhetorik,4 Neue Philogische Untersuchungen,1929,p.164.
[28]Aristotle,Aristotle on Rhetoric:A Theory of Civic Discourse,Kennedy,George A.(trans),New York:Oxford University Press,1991,p.214.
[29]Aristotle,The Rhetoric of Aristotle,Lane Cooper(trans),New York:Appleton Century Crofts,1932,p.158.
[30]Hill,B.and R.W.Leeman,The Art and Practice of Argumentation and Debate,Mayfield:Mountain View,CA,1997,p.165.
[31]Smith,R,Aristotle:Prior Analytics,Indianapolis:Hackett,1989;McAdon,B,Probabilities,Signs,Necessary Signs,Idia,and Topoi:The Confusing Discussion of Materials for Enthymemes in the Rhetoric,36 Philosophy and Rhetoric,2003,p.223~248.
[32]Aristotle,Aristotle on Rhetoric:A Theory of Civic Discourse,Kennedy,George A.(trans),New York:Oxford University Press,1991,pp.190~204.[譯者注]:關于這28項論題的翻譯,譯者分別參照了羅念生先生和舒國瀅教授的譯法。參見亞里士多德:《修辭學》,羅念生譯,三聯書店出版社1991年版,第119~134頁。舒國瀅:《論題學:從亞里士多德到西塞羅》,載《研究生法學》2011年第6期,第24~25頁。
[33]Ochs,D.J,Aristotle's Concept of Formal Topics,36 Speech Monographs,1969,pp.419~425.
[34]Covino,W.A.and D.A.Joliffe,Rhetoric,Boston:Allyn & Bacon,1995.
[35]Kemp,J.D,Topoi,http://www.Irc.gatech.edu/gallery/rhetoric/noframes/terms/topoi.html,1995.
[36]McAdon,B,Probabilities,Signs,Necessary Signs,Idia,and Topoi:The Confusing Discussion of Materials for Enthymemes in the Rhetoric,36 Philosophy and Rhetoric,2003,pp.223~248.
[37]Aristotle,Aristotle on Rhetoric:A Theory of Civic Discourse,Kennedy,George A.(trans),New York:Oxford University Press,1991,p.189.
[38]Arthos,J,Locating the Instability of the Topic Places:Rhetoric,Phronesis and Neurobiology,48Communication Quarterly,2000,pp.272~292.
[39]Leff,M,The Topics of Argumentative Invention in Latin Rhetorical Theory from Cicero to Boethius,1Rhetorica,1983,pp.23~45.
[40]Kennedy,G.A,Reworking Aristotle's Rhetoric,in C.L.Johnstone(ed.),Theory,Text,Context:Issues in Greek Rhetoric and Orator,Albany:State University of New York Press,1996,p.173.
[41]格倫·佩德森(Green-Pedersen)徹底的檢驗和追蹤了論題從亞里士多德到波愛修(Boethius)并經過中世紀的發展。參見Green-Pedersen,N.J,The Tradition of the Topics in the Middle Ages:The Commentaries on Aristotle's and Boethius’Topics,München:Philosophia Verlag,1984.關于波愛修和論題之間的更多信息,請參見Leff,M,The Topics of Argumentative Invention in Latin Rhetorical Theory from Cicero to Boethius,1Rhetorica,1983,pp.23~45.
[42]Cicero,M.T,De Inventione,H.M.Hubbel,Trans.New York:Loeb,1942,p.334.
[43]Rolfe,M,Cicero and His Influence,Longmans,Green, & Co,New York,1932,p.133.
[44]Cicero,M.T,De Inventione,H.M.Hubbel,Trans.New York:Loeb,1942,p.175.
[45]Covino,W.A.and D.A.Joliffe,Rhetoric,Boston:Allyn & Bacon,1995.
[46]Quintilian,M,The Institutes of Oratory,H.E.Butler,Trans,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1920,p.5.
[47]Garssen,B,Argument Schemes,in Frans H.van Eemeren,(ed.),Crucial Concepts in Argumentation Theory,Amsterdam:Amsterdam University Press,2001,p.83.
[48]Wallace,K.R,Topoi and the Problem of Invention,58 Quarterly Journal of Speech,1972,pp.387~395;Zagacki,K.S,Rhetoric,Topoi,and Scientific Revolution,25 Philosophy & Rhetoric,1992,Pp.59~78.
[49]Tallmon,J.M,Retooling the topoi,http://www2.dsu.nodak.edu/users/jtallmon/retooling.htm,2005.
[50][譯者注]:拉丁文Invention,意指“發現”或“發明”,是修辭學五大法則之一。是用于發現修辭學論點的方法。它是修辭學不可或缺的、處于中心地位的法則。
[51][譯者注]:拉丁文dispositio,意指在西方修辭學傳統中,被用于組織論證的體系。可以翻譯為“組織”或“安排”。它是古典修辭學五大法則中的第二個,第一個是invention(發現),其余為elocutio(風格、類型);memoria(記憶);pronuntiation(演講)。
[52]Aristotle,The Rhetoric of Aristotle,Lane Cooper(trans),New York:Appleton Century Crofts,1932,p.155.
[53]Kienpointner,M,On the Art of Finding Arguments:What Ancient and Modern Masters of Invention Have to Tell us About the“Ars Inveniendi”,11 Argumentation,1997,p.227.
[54]Ochs,D.J,The Tradition of the Classical Doctrines of Rhetorical Topoi,Ph.D.Dissertation,University of Iowa,1966,p.2.
[55]Vancil,D.L,Historical Barriers to a Modern System of Topoi,43 Western Journal of Speech Communication,1979,pp.26~37.
[56]Rieke,R.D.and M.O.Sillars,Argumentation:Critical Decision Making,New York:Collins,1993,p.24.
[57]See Perelman,C,The Realm of Rhetoric,Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,1982,p.24;Perelman,C.and L.Olbrechts-Tyteca,The New Rhetoric:A Treatise on Argumentation,Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,1969.
[58]目前關于批判性思維的不同的方面和定義的觀點是多種多樣的。See Ennis,R.H,Critical Thinking and Subject Specificity,18 Educational Researcher,1989,pp.4~10;Fowler,B,Critical thinking definitions,http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/ctac/definitions.htm,1996;Verlinden,J,Critical Thinking and Everyday Argument,Toronto:Wadsworth,2005.
[59]Elder,L.and R.Paul,Critical Thinking:Why we Must Transform our Teaching,18 Journal of Developmental Education,1994,pp.34~35.
[60]Siegel,H,Educating Reason:Rationality,Critical Thinking and Education,New York:Routledge,1988,p.34.
[61]Eemeren,F.H.van,R.Grootendorst and F.S.Henkemans,Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory:A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments,Mahwah:Lawrence Erlbaum,1996,p.105.
[62]Walton,D,The New Dialectic:A Method of Evaluating an Argument Used for Some Purpose in a Given Case,13 ProtoSociology,1999,p.71.
[63]Cicero,De Partitone Oratoria,H.M.Hubbel,Trans.,Loeb,New York,1942,p.175.
[64]Inch,E.S.and B.Warnick,Critical Thinking and Communication:The Use of Reason in Argument,Boston:Allyn & Bacon,2002,p.5.
[65]Bilsky,M,H.McCrea,R.E.Streeter and R.M.Weaver,Looking for an Argument,14 College English,1953,pp.210~216.
[66]Infante,D.A,The Influence of a Topical System on the Discovery of Argument,38 Speech Monographs,1971,pp.125~128.
[67]Pullman George,L,Rhetoric and Hermeneutics:Composition,Invention,and Literature,14 JAC,pp.367~387.
[68]Feteris,E.T,Argumentation in the Field of Law,in Frans H.van Eemeren,(ed.),Crucial Concepts in Argumentation Theory,Amsterdam:Amsterdam University Press,2003,pp.201~225.
[69]Sovacool,B,The Use of Topoi in Academic Debate,Detroit:Wayne State University Publishing,2003.
[70]Kirch,A,A Basic Writer's Topoi for Timed Essay Tests,15 Journal of Basic Writing,1996,pp.112~124.
[71]Haynes,C,Inside the Teaching Machine:Actual Feminism and(Virtual)Pedagogy,Computers,Writing,Rhetoric and Literature,http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/currents/cwrl/v2n1/haynes/,1996;Arthos,J,Locating the Instability of the Topic Places:Rhetoric,Phronesis and Neurobiology,48 Communication Quarterly,2000,pp.272~292;Wolfe,J,A Method for Teaching Invention in the Gateway Literature Class,Pedagogy,2003,pp.399~425.