第1章　導　言

1.1　復習筆記

本章要點：

1．The definition and main branches of linguistics study

語言學的定義和研究的范圍

2．The definition and the origins of language

語言的定義與起源

3．The design feature and the function of language

語言的特征和功能

4．Some major concepts in linguistics

語言學中重要的概念

本章考點：

1．有關語言學的常考考點

(1) 語言學的定義，現代語言學與傳統語法學研究的區別。

(2) 語言學中幾組重要概念，每組兩個概念的含義、區分及其意義。

(3) 普通語言學的主要分支學科及各自的研究范疇。

(4) 宏觀語言學及應用語言學的主要分支及各自的研究范疇。

2．有關語言的常考考點

(1) 語言的定義；語言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多產性、移位性、互換性、專門性和文化傳遞性)；

(2) 語言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑問、表達、勸說和施為)；

(3) 語言的起源(叮咚說、唱歌說、噠噠說、汪汪、噗噗、喲嘿吼理論等。)

本章內容索引：

I. Definition of linguistics

II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar

III. Scope of linguistics

1．Microlinguistics

2．Macrolinguistics

IV. Definition of language

V. Origins of language

1．Ding-Dong Theory

2．Sing-Song Theory

3．Pooh-Pooh Theory

4．Yo-He-Ho Theory

5．Ta-Ta Theory

6．Bow-Wow Theory

VI. Design features of language

1．Arbitrariness

2．Duality

3．Productivity

4．Interchangeability

5．Displacement

6．Specialization

7．Cultural transmission

VII. Functions of language

1．Phatic function/communion

2．Directive function

3．Informative function

4．Interrogative function

5．Expressive function

6．Evocative function

7．Performative function

VIII. Some major concepts in linguistics

1．Descriptive and prescriptive grammar

2．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics

3．Langue and parole

4．Competence and performance

5．Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

6．Functionalism and formalism

I. Definition of linguistics (語言學的定義)

【考點：名詞解釋】

The scientific or systemic study of language, which is always guided by the- three canons of science: exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.

語言學是對語言的科學或系統的研究。語言學研究的科學性可以歸納為：窮盡性、一致性以及簡潔性。

II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar (語言學與傳統語法)

Linguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in three basic ways.

1．Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness.

2．Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.

3．Linguistics describes each language on its own merits.

語言學在以下三方面不同于傳統語法。

1．語言學描述語言而非設定規則。

2．語言學認為口語是基礎而非文字。

3．語言學描述不同的語言，而非一概而論。

III. Scope of linguistics (語言學的研究范疇)

1．Microlinguistics(微觀語言學)

Phonetics語音學

Phonology音系學

Morphology形態學

Syntax句法學

Semantics語義學

Pragmatics語用學

2．Macrolinguistics (宏觀語言學)

Sociolinguistics社會語言學

Psycholinguistics心理語言學

Neurolinguistics神經語言學

Stylistics文體學

Discourse analysis語篇分析

Computational linguistics計算語言學

Cognitive linguistics認知語言學

Applied linguistics應用語言學

IV. Definition of language (語言的定義)

【考點：名詞解釋】

1．Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles.

2．Language is arbitrary—there is no intrinsic connection between the word (e.g. pen) and the thing (e.g. what we write with).

3．Language is vocal—the primary medium for all languages is sound.

4．Language is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication.

1．語言是一個系統——其元素非任意排列，而是根據一定規則組合的。

2．語言是任意的——詞與其所指物之間沒有內在的聯系。

3．語言是口頭的——是所有語言的基本交流形式。

4．語言是人類用來交流的工具——不同于動物的交流系統。

V. Origins of language (語言的起源)

1．Ding-Dong Theory (叮咚理論)

Human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.

語言起源于原始人對物體的口頭表達。

2．Sing-Song Theory (唱歌說)

Language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.

語言起源于原始儀式贊美的歌聲。

3．Pooh-Pooh Theory (噗噗理論)

Language came from interjections, which express the speaker’s emotions.

語言來源于人本能表達情感的聲音。

4．Yo-He-Ho Theory (呦嘿吼理論)

Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.

語言來源于共同勞動時發出的呦嘿聲。

5．Ta-Ta Theory (噠噠說)

Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements.

語言來源于移動舌頭發出的聲音與某個手勢的結合。

6．Bow-Wow Theory (汪汪理論)

Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.

語言起源于人們模仿動物的叫聲和其他自然界中的聲音。

VI. Design features of language (語言的定義特征)

【重點、考點：論述語言的識別特征】

1．Arbitrariness (任意性)

This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, or why Chinese should use “gou” to refer to the same animal. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.

任意性是指某個符號的聲音與意義之間沒有邏輯或內在聯系。例如，英文中用/d?g/來指動物狗，而中文卻用“gou”。單詞的聲音與其意義之間的關系是任意的。

2．Duality (二重性)

Language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. For instance, human language has a number of sound units, or phonemes, but each phoneme is normally meaningless in isolation. It becomes meaningful only when it is combined with other phonemes.

語言結構具有二重性。其中一層結構本身是沒有意義的，但是它會與另外具有意義的一層相結合。比如，人類語言中的音素，獨立的音素本身通常是沒有意義的，當與其他因素結合起來才有可能產生意義。

3．Productivity (多產性)

Productivity or creativity refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.

多產性是指人們的一種語言能力，能使人們用母語說出或者明白無限多的句子，有些我們以前從未聽過的句子。

4．Interchangeability (互換性)

Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.

互換性是指人可以是信息的發出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作為說話者和聽話者的角色是可以隨意更換的。

5．Displacement (移位性)

Displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.

移位性能使人們談論距離和時間上不可及的事物。

6．Specialization (專門性)

Specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication.

專門性是指人們在交流過程中并不是全身的運動，只通過語言即可交流。

7．Cultural transmission (文化傳遞性)

Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese.

語言是通過文化傳遞的，而不是遺傳的。一個中國小孩在倫敦長大的話就會說英文，而一個英國小孩在北京長大的話就會說中文。

VII. Functions of language (語言功能)

1．Phatic function/communion (寒暄功能)

Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer. Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather serve this function.

語言能夠在說話者與聽話者之間建立一種氣氛或是維持兩者間的社會關系，如問候語、送別及談論天氣的對話。

2．Directive function (指示功能)

Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.

語言能使聽話者按照聽到的話去做。大部分祈使句都體現了這種功能。

3．Informative function (信息功能)

Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences serve this function.

語言用來陳述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理，一般出現在陳述句中。

4．Interrogative function (疑問功能)

Language is used to ask for information from others. All questions expecting replies serve this function.

語言用來向他人提問而獲取信息。需回答的疑問句體現了此功能。

5．Expressive function (表達功能)

Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings. Ejaculations serve this function, such as “My God!” and “Good heavens!”

語言用來表達說話者的態度與感受。感嘆句體現了此功能，例如“我的天啊！”

6．Evocative function (喚起功能)

Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve this function.

語言用來使聽話者產生某種感情。開玩笑，廣告還有宣傳中的語言體現了這一功能。

7．Performative function (施為功能)

Language is used to do things or to perform acts. The judge’s imprisonment sentences, the president’s declaration of war or the Queen’s naming of a ship, etc., serve this function.

語言用來實施一種行為。比如入獄判刑，總統宣戰，女皇為船艦命名等體現了語言的這種職能。

VIII. Some major concepts in linguistics (語言學中的主要概念)

1．Descriptive and prescriptive grammar (描寫式與規定式語法)

(1) Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.

(2) As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.

(1) 描寫式語法旨在對語言進行描述，而規定式語法旨在規定語言應該如何。

(2) 傳統與法學家試圖規定語言規則，這就是規定式語法。現代語言學基本上是描寫式語法。

2．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics (共時與歷時語言學)

When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.

Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

對語言在歷史上的某一時間點進行的描寫就是共時性語言學；對語言隨時間變化而變化進行的描寫就是歷時性語言學。

共時語言學集中研究歷史任何時期點的語言現狀，而歷時語言學集中研究幾十年或幾百年的時期內兩個或比兩個更多的語言狀況的差異。

3．Langue and parole (語言與言語)

(1) F. de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole.

(2) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.

(3) Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.

(1) 索緒爾對語言和言語做了重要區分。

(2) 語言是指一個語言群體的所有成員所共有的抽象的語言系統。言語是指語言的具體實現和運用。

(3) 語言是社會的，約定性的，而言語是個人的話語。

4．Competence and performance (語言能力和語言應用)

According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.

根據喬姆斯基的理論，一名語言使用者對于語言規則系統的潛在認識稱為他的語言能力。語言運用指在具體場景中語言的實際運用。

5．Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (組合與聚合關系)

Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.

索緒爾提出了另一對概念：組合與聚合關系。前者是指語言要素之間的水平關系，呈線形結構。后者是指語言形式間的垂直關系，在結構中也許在同一結構。

6．Functionalism and formalism (功能主義與結構主義)

【重點、考點：區分功能觀與句子觀】

Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.

Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.

功能主義或功能語言學指以交際中語言社會功能為依據，對語言形式的研究。

結構主義或結構語言學指抽象的語言形式及內部關系的研究。