第3章　詞　匯

3.1　復習筆記

本章要點：

1．Word Senses

詞的含義

2．Classification of Word

詞的分類

3．Word Formation

詞的形成

4．Lexical Change

詞匯的變化

?？伎键c：

詞法的定義；曲折詞與派生詞；構詞法（合成與派生）；詞素的定義；詞素變體；自由詞素；粘著詞素（詞根，詞綴和詞干）；詞的定義；語法詞與詞匯詞；變詞與不變詞；封閉詞與開放詞。

本章內容索引：

I. Word

1．Three Senses of “Word”

2．Identification of Words

3．Classification of Words

(1) Variable and invariable words

(2) Lexical (content) words and grammatical (functional) words

(3) Closed-class words and open-class words

(4) Word class

II. Morpheme and Morphology

1．Definition

2．Types of Morphemes

(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme

(2) Root, affix and stem

(3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix

3．Inflection and Word Formation

(1) Inflection

(2) Word Formation

III. The Counterpoints of Phonology and Morphology

1．Sememe vs. Morpheme

2．Morpheme vs. Phoneme

3．Phonological Structure vs. Morpheme Structure

4．Allomorph

5．Morphophonology vs. Morphophonemics

IV. Lexical Change

1．Lexical Change Proper

(1) Invention

(2) Blending

(3) Abbreviation (clipping) :

(4) Acronym

(5) Back-formation

(6) Analogical creation

(7) Borrowing

2．Semantic Change

(1) Broadening

(2) Narrowing

(3) Meaning shift

(4) Class shift

(5) Folk etymology

3．Phonological Change

(1) Loss

(2) Addition

(3) Metathesis

(4) Assimilation

I. Word (詞)

Word is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form.

詞是個語言表達單位，無論是在口語還是在書面語中，說母語的人都能夠憑直覺識別這個語言單位。

1．Three Senses of “Word” (詞的三種含義)

(1) a physically definable unit;

(2) both a general and specific term;

(3) a grammatical unit.

（1）詞是自然的有界限的對立單位；

（2）詞既是一個普通術語又是一個專門術語；

（3）詞是一個語法單位。

2．Identification of Words (詞的識別)

(1) stability (穩定性)

Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.

就詞的內部結構而言，詞是所有語言單位中最穩定的。

(2) relative uninterruptibility (相對連續性)

The new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in a word.

連續性指的是一個詞的幾個成分之間不可介入新的成分，即使這個詞由多個成分構成。

(3) a minimum free form (最小的自由形式)

Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance.

詞是能夠獨立構成一個完整語句的最小單位。

3．Classification of Words (詞的分類)

【考點：判斷詞的所屬類型——可變vs.不變；語法vs.詞匯；封閉vs.開放】

(1) Variable and invariable words (可變詞和不變詞)

Variable words have inflective endings, namely, part of the word remains constant while the other part changes regularly to fulfill different grammatical functions.

Invariable words, such as since, when, hello, do not have inflective endings.

可變詞有形態變化，即詞的一部分保持不變，另一部分有規則地變化以實現不同的語法功能。不變詞沒有形態變化。

(2) lexical (content) words and Grammatical (functional) words (詞匯詞和語法詞)

①Those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.

具有詞匯意義（指代物質、動作和性質）的詞稱為詞匯詞，例如名詞、動詞、形容詞和副詞。

②Those which mainly used for constructing groups, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, e.g., conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns.

表達語法意義的詞是語法詞，例如連詞、介詞和代詞。

(3) Closed-class words and open-class words (封閉類詞和開放類詞)

Closed-class words refer to those whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. It is hard for one to add or deduce a new member.

Open-class words are those whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and can be added with the development of society, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs.

封閉類詞的成員數目固定，數量有限。像代詞、介詞、連詞和冠詞都屬于封閉類詞，一般不能輕易增加或衍生新的成員。

相比之下，開放類詞的成員數目基本上是無限的,其數目會隨著社會發展不斷地、經常地增加。名詞、動詞、形容詞和副詞屬于開放類詞。

(4) Word class (詞類)

Besides the traditional noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection and article, particles, auxiliaries, pro-form and determiners can be added.

在傳統的名詞、代詞、形容詞、動詞、副詞、介詞、連詞、感嘆詞和冠詞的基礎上，可新增助詞、助動詞、代詞形式、限定詞。

II. Morpheme and Morphology (語素和形態學)

1．Definition (定義)

Morpheme studies the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed, including inflection and word formation.

語素是最小的語言單位，不能再進一步分成更小的單位而不破壞或徹底改變詞匯意義或語法意義。

形態學研究詞的內部結構以及詞的構造規則，包括屈折變化和詞的形成兩個領域。

2．Types of Morphemes (語素的類型)

【考點：判斷語素所屬類型——自由vs.粘著；詞根vs.詞綴vs.詞干】

(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme (自由語素和粘著語素)

①Free morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds.

②Bound morphemes cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme.

①自由語素指能夠單獨出現或獨立成詞的語素。所有的單語素詞都是自由語素，由自由語素構成的多語素詞為復合詞。

②粘著語素指不能單獨出現，必須跟至少一個其他語素共同出現的語素。

(2) Root, affix and stem (詞根，詞綴和詞干)

①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. All words contain a root morpheme. It can either be a free morpheme or a bound morpheme.

②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme which can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem) , so affix is naturally bound. Affixes are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word.

③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.

【考點：詞根與詞干的區別】

①詞根是構成詞的基礎成分，不能再做進一步分析而不破壞其意義。每個詞都包括一個詞根語素，它可以是自由語素或粘著語素。

②詞綴是那些只能附著于另一個語素(詞根或詞干)上的一類語素的總稱。詞綴都是粘著語素，可分為前綴、中綴和后綴三種。

③詞干指能加屈折詞綴的語素(組合)，它相當于詞根或詞根加派生詞綴。

(3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix (屈折詞綴與派生詞綴)

Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word but only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.

Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning and the word class. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes (e.g. drums, walks, Mary’s), but derivational affixes can be prefixes (e.g. suburban, online, depart) or suffix (e.g. teacher, workable).

【考點：屈折詞綴與派生詞綴的區別】

屈折詞綴不改變原詞的詞類，只在詞干后面添加一個微小或微妙的語法意義。

派生詞綴常常改變詞匯的意義和詞類。英語中屈折詞綴多為后綴， 但派生詞組還可以是前綴或后綴。

3．Inflection and Word Formation (曲折變化與詞的形成)

(1) Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.

(2) Word Formation: It refers to the process of word variation signaling lexical relationships. It can be further divided into compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).

①Compound: It refers to those words which have more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. Compounds can be divided into the endocentric and the exocentric compound.

Endocentric compound refers to a compound which has a center or a head word.

Exocentric compound is one which has no center or a head word.

②Derivation: It refers to the process to add an affix to an already existing form to create a word, which includes prefixation, suffixation, and even both.

（1）曲折變化是通過附加屈折詞綴表現語法關系，如數、人稱、有定性、體和格，不改變所附加詞干的語法類別。

（2）詞的形成指詞形變化的過程，這些詞形變化是標志詞項之間關系的。詞的形成可以進一步分為復合類（復合詞）和派生類（派生詞）兩種。

①復合詞指那些由一個以上的詞匯語素構成的詞，或者由兩個獨立的詞連接起來的構成新的形式。復合詞可以進一步分為向心復合詞和離心復合詞。

向心復合詞指具有一個意義上的中心詞的復合詞。

離心復合詞指沒有一個意義上的中心詞的復合詞。

②派生法指通過在詞干上加上詞綴而得到一個新詞的方法，主要包括前綴化、后綴化或者兩者同時發生。

III. The Counterpoints of Phonology and Morphology (音系學和形態學的對立)

1．Sememe vs. Morpheme (義素與語素)

Sememe is the smallest component of meaning. For example, the morpheme –s has only one sememe: plurality, meaning more than one. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

義素是意義的最小單位，例如語素{-s}僅含有一個義素（復數），意思是多于一個。語言的最小意義單位，不能再進一步分成更小的單位而不被破壞或徹底改變詞匯意義或語法意義。

2．Morpheme vs. Phoneme (語素與音位)

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. It is the smallest unit in grammar. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound. A single phoneme may represent a morpheme, but they are not identical, e.g., the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme in “caps” but nothing in “praise”.

語素是最小的語義單位，它是語法中的最小單位。音位是語音中的最小單位，單個音位可以代表一個語素，但它們不是同一的。例如音位 /z/ 在“cups”代表了復數的語素，但是在“raise”卻與語素無關。

3．Phonological Structure vs. Morpheme Structure (語素結構與音位結構)

Morphemes may be represented by phonological structures, which are monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.

語素可以通過音系結構呈現。語素可以是單音位的，也可以是單音節的或多音節的。

4．Allomorph (語素變體)

Those morphs which represent the same morpheme are called the allomorphs of the same morpheme. For instance, the noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has [-s], [-z], [-iz], [-ai], [-n], [-i], [?] and other morphs, such morphs are termed as the allomorphs of the morpheme {plural}.

Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, some others may have considerable variations; some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes and thus have different meanings, for instance, the morphemic shapes {-s} can express plurality in desks, person/ finiteness in speaks and case in girl’s.

那些代表同一語素的不同形素叫做該語素的語素變體。例如，英語名詞復數語素{plural}有[-s], [-z], [-iz], [-ai], [-n],[-i:], [?]等不同的形素，它們叫做復數語素{plural}的語素變體。

有些語素在任何語境中都只有一個形式，還有的有多個變化形式；有些語素形式能表示不同意義的語素，“s”可以表示復數、人稱/有定性，也可以表示格。

5．Morphophonology vs. Morphophonemics (形態音系學或形態音位學)

Morphophonology or morphophonemics is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.

形態音系學又叫形態音位學，研究音位學和形態學的關系，對影響語素形式的音位要素或影響音位形式的語法要素進行分析和分類。它主要研究音系學與形態學之間的內部關系。

IV. Lexical Change (詞匯變化)

Apart from compound and derivation, lexical change includes invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym, backformation, analogical creation and borrowing.

詞匯的變化除了復合詞和派生詞之外，還有新創詞語、混成法、縮寫法、縮略語、逆構詞法、類推構法以及借詞。

1．Lexical Change Proper (特有詞匯變化)

【考點：名詞解釋&指出一詞的詞匯變化方式】

(1) Invention: It is also called coinage, which refers to the new lexical items which come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Coke, nylon and others to cope with the invention of new entities.

新創詞又稱造詞，指直接用某一種商品的生產商或者商標的名字作為該類產品名稱的造詞方法，例如Coke, nylon等，它們都已成為了代表新事物的新創詞語。

(2) Blending: A process in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words, such as alcopop (alcohol + pop), faction (fact + fiction) , flare (flame + glare) , etc.

混成法是指一個詞由兩個單詞混合而成，一般把第一個單詞的開頭部分和第二個單詞的最后部分連接起來，或者是把兩個單詞的開頭部分連接起來。例如alcopop (alcohol + pop) , faction (fact + fiction) , flare (flame + glare) ,等。

(3) Abbreviation(clipping): The way of shortening a longer word into a shorter form, e.g. photograph - photo, gasoline - gas, etc.

縮寫法（截斷法），是指把一個較長的詞匯通過截斷而得到的較短的詞的構詞方法。例如photograph - photo, gasoline - gas等。

(4) Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword, e.g. NATO, UNESCO.

縮略語是由組織機構的首字母組成的，而這個組織機構的名稱有多重修飾語，例如NATO, UNESCO。

【考點：指出Acronym與Initialism的區別】

(5) Back-formation refers to an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g. back-form.

逆構詞法是一種不規則的構詞類型，即把一個語言中已經存在的較長單詞刪去想象中的詞綴，由此造出一個較短的單詞，例如back-form。

(6) Analogical creation: The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs.

類推構詞：某些英語動詞同時具有規則的和不規則的兩種變化形式，這可以用這類構詞的原則來解釋。

(7) Borrowing: It is also called loan, which means the words have been borrowed from the other languages. There are several types of processes with regard to borrowing.

借詞法是指從其他語言中借來的詞放在自己語言中使用。借詞法有以下幾種類型：

①Loanwords: It is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.

②Loanblend: It is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.

③Loanshift: It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.

④Loan translation: It is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.

【考點：區分四種借詞方式并舉例】

①借詞：借詞是指形式和意義都是借用的，有時為了適應新語言的音位系統，可以有些細小的改變。

②混合借詞：混合借詞是指借詞的一部分來自本國語，另一部來自外來語，但是意義全都是借過來的。

③轉移借詞：轉移借詞的意義是借用的，但是形式是來自本國語。

④翻譯借詞：翻譯借詞是一種特殊的借用，每個語素或單詞都是從另一種語言中的語素或對單詞對等地翻譯過來的。

2．Semantic Change (語義變化)

【考點：簡答——指出語義變化的主要方式并舉例說明】

(1) Broadening: It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.

詞義擴大：詞義擴大就是指把意義從原來具體的意思擴充到相對概括的意思。

(2) Narrowing: It is contrary to broadening; the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.

詞義縮?。涸~義縮小是指與詞義擴大相反的一個過程，原來的詞義縮小或被限制到某個明確的意義上。

(3) Meaning shift: The change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction, what makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.

詞義轉移：詞義轉移跟概括和限制沒有關系，導致詞義變化的原因是它在隱喻手法中離開了原來的語義領域。

(4) Class shift: Change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.

詞性變換：詞性變換是指某種具體的實體或概念變為某種方式或屬性。這種構詞法也叫做零派生或轉換。

(5) Folk etymology: It refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.

俗詞源：俗詞源是指由于對詞源錯誤而又普遍的解釋或對詞義的錯誤理解，或者由于受到更熟悉的詞匯的影響而進行了錯誤的類推，導致詞或短語的形式有了新的意義。

3．Phonological Change (音位變化)

Phonological change refers to the change in sound leading to changes in form. It is related to language variations in the phonological system of language.

語音變化是指因為語音上的改變而導致的形式變化。音位變化跟語言學音位系統的各種變化有關。

The factors contribute to the formation of new pronunciation:

(1) Loss: The loss of sound can refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. It may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels.

(2) Addition: It refers to the addition of some sounds to the original sound sequence.

(3) Metathesis: It is a process involving a change in the sequence of sounds.

(4) Assimilation: It refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.

影響音位變化的因素：

（1）脫落：語音脫落是指音位系統中作為音位的某個語音的消失。語音脫落也可以在語句中發生，往往是某些非重讀元音發生脫落。

（2）添加：添加是指把某些語音添加到語音原有的鏈條上。

（3）換位：換位是指語流中一種可供選擇的方法。

（4）同化：同化是指由于鄰近語音的影響而產生的語音變化，更明確的叫法是“接觸”同化或“鄰近”同化。