1.2　考研真題與典型題詳解

I. Fill in the blanks.

1．Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and ______ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness.（大連外國語學院2008研）

【答案】Conventionality

【解析】語言學習過程中學習者必須識記一些固定搭配或約定俗成的習語諺語等，因此使得語言學習比較費力。

2．In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier(sound image) and signified (concept) is ______.（北二外2005研）

【答案】Arbitrary

【解析】索緒爾認為符號的形式或聲音與其意義之間沒有邏輯聯系，所以兩者之間的關系是任意的。

3．Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the ______ it is associated with.（人大2007研）

【答案】Meaning

【解析】參見第2題解析。

4．The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.（北二外2006研）

【答案】Design

【解析】人類語言區別于其他動物交流系統的特點是語言的區別特征，是人類語言特有的特征。

5．Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as ______.（北二外2007研）

【答案】Displacement

【解析】移位性是指人類語言可以讓使用者在交際時用語言符號代表時間和空間上不可及的物體、事件和觀點。

6．By ______ is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.（北二外2005研）

【答案】duality

【解析】雙重性是指擁有兩層結構的這種屬性，底層結構是上層結構的組成成分，每層都有自身的組合規則。

7．Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ______, interpersonal and textual functions.（中山大學2008研）

【答案】ideational

【解析】韓理德將兒童的語言功能范圍逐漸縮小，簡化成為一套高度符號化和抽象化的功能：概念、人際、語篇功能。

8．Our language can be used to talk about itself. This is the ______ function of language.（中山大學2005研）

【答案】metalingual

【解析】語言的元語言功能是指語言可以用來討論語言本身。

9．_____ function is realized by mood and modality.（中山大學2006研）

【答案】Interpersonal

【解析】人際功能通過語氣情態實現。

10．_____ refers to the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. Religious, legal).（北二外2016研）

【答案】Function

【解析】本題考查語言學中對“語言的功能”的定義。功能指的是語言在溝通中(例如表達觀點、態度)或在特定社交場合(如宗教、法律)中所起的作用。

11．Some sentences do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The utterance of these sentences is or is a part of the doing of an action. They are called ______.（大連外國語學院2008研）

【答案】Performative

【解析】施為句是用來做事的，既不陳述事實，也不描述情況，且不能驗證其真假。

12．When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is______ function.（北二外2005研）

【答案】phatic

【解析】寒暄功能是指那些有助于確立和維持人際關系的表達，例如俚語、玩笑、行話、禮節性的問候、社會方言或地域方言的轉用等。

13．Linguistics is usually defined as the ______ study of language.（北二外2003研）

【答案】scientific

【解析】語言學通常被定義為研究科學的語言，或對語言的科學研究。

14．The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______.（北二外2003研）

【答案】Phonology

【解析】音系學研究支配語音分布和排列的規則以及音節的形式。

15．The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called ______.（北二外2004研）

【答案】Morphology

【解析】形態學研究詞語的內部結構組織。

16．______ mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.（北二外2005研）

【答案】Phonetics

【解析】語音學研究語音，以及語音的描寫和分類。

17．Semantics and ______ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning.（北二外2007研）

【答案】pragmatics

【解析】語義學研究詞作為詞的意義，語用學是在語境中研究意義。

18．In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.（中山大學2008研）

【答案】Syntax

【解析】句法學研究形成正確句子的規則。

19．______can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.

【答案】Pragmatics

【解析】語用學是在語境中研究意義。

20．The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called ______.（北二外2008研）

【答案】Syntax

【解析】句法學研究語言中組合成句子的支配規則，或簡單地說，研究句子的構造。

21．Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological _____ of linguistic structures.（中山大學2006研）

【答案】Reality

【解析】心理語言學研究語言與意識之間的聯系，實質就是心理活動與語言結構之間的關系。

22．Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as _____ and _____. The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.（人大2006研）

【答案】langue; parole

【解析】語言指一個語言集團的所有成員共享的抽象語言系統，言語是指語言在實際使用中的實現。

23．_____ grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while _____ grammars tell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.（人大2006研）

【答案】descriptive; prescriptive

【解析】描述性語言記錄語言共同體的成員所遵循的規則，規定式的語言學目的在于為正確使用語言定下各種規則。

24．One of the important distinctions in linguistics is _____ and performance.（人大2006研）

【答案】Competence

【解析】語言能力指理想的語言使用者關于語言規則的語言知識，語言應用指語言交際中關于語言規則知識的實際使用。

25．An approach in linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is _____.（北二外2008研）

【答案】Prescriptive

【解析】規定式的語言學目的在于為正確使用語言定下各種規則。

26．Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______ and performances.（北二外2007研）

【答案】Competence

【解析】喬姆斯基提出了語言能力和語言應用的根本區別。

27．By ______, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.（北二外2013研）

【答案】creativity

【解析】本題考查語言的定義特征中的創造性。創造性指語言的能產性，它能夠使人造出和理解無窮的長句，其中很多句子是以前從未聽過的。

28．The idea of _______ was first developed by Roman Jacobson (l896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds.（中山大學2011年研）

【答案】distinctive features

【解析】區別性特征第一次由Roman Jacobson提出。

29．Modern linguistic is _____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.

【答案】Descriptive

【解析】把語言說成描述性的科學是說語言學家試圖發現和記錄一語言共同體的成員所遵循的規則，并不是強加給他們其他規則或正確的標準。

30．The description of a language as it changes through time is a ______ study.

【答案】Diachronic linguistic

【解析】歷時語言學集中研究幾十年或幾百年的時期內兩個或比兩個更多的語言狀況的差異。

31．Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s_______.

【答案】Competence

【解析】索緒爾的語言與喬姆斯基的語言能力相似，因為二者都指抽象的語言知識，不是實際使用中的語言。

32．One of the important distinctions in linguistics is _____ and parole. The former is the French word for “language”, which is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, writing and reading. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by people in speech or writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.

【答案】langue

【解析】索緒爾用語言和言語來區分說話者的語言能力和言語上（表達的）的實際表現或語料。

II. Multiple Choice

1．Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature?（大連外國語學院2008研）

A. Arbitrariness

B. Convention

C. Duality

【答案】B

【解析】語言的區別性特征主要是指任意性，雙重性，創造性和移位性。

2．Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?（西安交通大學2008研）

A. tree

B. crash

C. typewriter

D. bang

【答案】A

【解析】crash是一個縮略語，typewriter是復合詞，bang是擬聲詞，所以只有tree的形成比較任意。

3．By _____ we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.（西安外國語學院2006研）

A. arbitrariness

B. duality

C. creativity

D. displacement

【答案】C

【解析】創造性指語言的能產性，它能夠使人造出和理解無窮的長句，其中很多句子是以前從未聽過的。

4．When language is used to get information from others, it serves an _____ function.（北二外2003研）

A. informative

B. directive

C. interrogative

【答案】C

【解析】語言用來陳述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。信息功能是語言最重要的功能，一般出現在陳述句中。

5．The functions of language do NOT include _____.（大連外國語學院2008研）

A. informative function

B. interpersonal function

C. metacognitive function

【答案】C

【解析】語言的主要功能包括信息功能，人際功能，施為功能，感情功能，寒暄功能，元語言功能和娛樂功能。

6．The study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech is closely connected with _____.（大連外國語學院2008研）

A. articulatory phonetics

B. acoustic phonetics

C. auditory phonetics

【答案】B

【解析】聲學語音學研究語音的物質特征。

7．Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?（大連外國語學院2008研）

A. Macrolinguistics

B. Psycholinguistics

C. Sociolinguistics

【答案】A

【解析】語言學主要分為宏觀語言學和微觀語言學，宏觀語言學又包括社會語言學，心理語言學和人類語言學。

8．Saussure is closely connected with _____.（大連外國語學院2008研）

A. Langue

B. Competence

C. Etic

【答案】A

【解析】索緒爾提出了言語與語言，喬姆斯基提出了語言能力與語言應用。

9．Saussure took a(n) _____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a _____ point of view.（西安交通大學2008研）

A. sociological...psychological

B. psychological...sociological

C. applied...pragmatic

D. semantic...linguistic

【答案】A

【解析】索緒爾的語言指語言社團中的語言，所以是從社會的角度研究語言。喬姆斯基是從使用者本身掌握的語言知識研究語言，是從心理角度研究語言。

10．According to F. de Saussure, _____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（西安交通大學2008研）

A. parole

B. performance

C. langue

D. Language

【答案】C

【解析】參見第9題解析。

11．______ refers to the system of a language, i.e. the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of.（西安外國語學院2006研）

A. Langue

B. Competence

C. Communicative competence

D. Linguistic potential

【答案】A

【解析】語言指一個言語社團所有成員共享的抽象語言系統。

12．The actual production and comprehension of the speech by speakers of a language is called ______.(北二外2010研)

A. grammar rules

B. competence

C. performance

D. language device

【答案】C

【解析】語言應用指在語言交際中關于語言規則知識的實際使用。

13．The study of language at one point in time is a _____ study.（北二外2010研)

A. historical

B. synchronic

C. descriptive

D. diachronic

【答案】B

【解析】在某一時間點上對語言的描寫是一種共時研究。

14．Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson’s framework of language functions?

A. The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.

B. The emotive function is to convey message and information.

C. The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meanings.

D. The phatic function is to establish communion with others.

【答案】D

【解析】所指功能是指用語言來傳達信息，情感功能是表達一種態度，感受；意動功能是通過命令和懇求說服影響他人。

15．“An refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of _____.

A. arbitrariness

B. creativity

C. duality

D. displacement

【答案】D

【解析】移位性是指人類語言可以讓使用者在交際時用語言符號代表時間和空間上不可及的物體、事件和觀點。

16．The function of the sentence“Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is _____.

A. interrogative

B. directive

C. informative

D. performative

【答案】C

【解析】語言的信息功能是指語言用來陳述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

III. True or False

1．It is conclusive that Chinese is regarded as the primeval language.（清華2000研）

【答案】F

【解析】漢語是經過長期發展而來的高級語言而不是一種原始語言。

2．Wherever humans exist, language exists.（對外經貿2006研）

【答案】F

【解析】語言是在人類出現相當一段時間之后才出現的。

3．According to Saussure, the relation between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary.（大連外國語學院2008研）

【答案】T

【解析】索緒爾認為語言符號的形式與意義沒有天然聯系，兩者之間的聯系是任意的。

4．The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES.（大連外國語學院2008研）

【答案】T

【解析】能定義人類語言的特點就是語言的基本特征。

5．Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.（清華2000研）

【答案】F

【解析】擬聲詞表明語言并不是完全任意的，一些擬聲詞的發音與其意義還是有一定聯系的。

6．The bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.（大連外國語學院2008研）

【答案】T

【解析】語言的起源包括“汪汪”，“噗噗”等理論。

7．When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informative function.（清華2001研）

【答案】F

【解析】語言是用來陳述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理，信息功能是語言最重要的功能，一般出現在陳述句中。

8．Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study.

【答案】F

【解析】歷史語言學相當于歷時研究。

9．Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.

【答案】T

【解析】二重性是人類語言的一個基本特征，因為語言有兩層結構：聲音系統和意義系統。

10．Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.

【答案】F

【解析】描寫式和規定式的語言學是分析語言的兩種不同的方法，不能簡單的說誰好誰壞之說。

IV. Explain the following terms.

1．Displacement（南開大學2010研；清華2001研）

【答案】Displacement: Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example, we can talk about Sapir, who is already dead; we can even talk about next week, which is in the future.

2．Duality（北二外2010研；南開大學2010研；西安交通大學2008研）

【答案】Duality refers to the fact that in all languages so far investigated there are two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.

3．Arbitrariness（四川大學2006研）

【答案】Arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs have no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, a conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. For example, it is unable to explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/.

4．Phatic function(communion)(武漢大學2005研)

【答案】Phatic function: The phatic function of language refers to the use of the language which often consists of small, seemingly meaningless expression for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts rather than for exchanging information or ideas. For example, greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English could serve this function.

V. Short answer questions

1．What is the directive function?（西安交大2008研）

【答案】Directive function is one of functions of language. Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function. For example, the sentence “Close your book and listen to me carefully!” performs a directive function. Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”

2．How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language?（北二外2008研）

【答案】We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc.

3．Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two.（北外2002研）

【答案】By definition, phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including the production of speech, while phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages. Phonetics is the study of actual sounds, that is, the analysis and modeling the speech signal; phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns in different languages or within a language. In this sense, phonetics is concrete, while phonology is abstract. What phonetics studies is the speech sound, namely phone, what phonology studies is phoneme.

4．What makes language unique to human beings?（北航2010研）

【答案】The design features of language which refer to the defining properties of human language tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.Arbitrariness is a core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Duality, which means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic unites to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never heard before. Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters, in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. So all these features make language unique to human beings.

5．What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?(西安交通大學2008研)

【答案】Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Put it simply, phonetics simply describes the articulatory and acoustic properties of phones (speech sounds) while phonology studies how sounds interact as a system in a particular language.

6．Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?(南開大學2004研)

【答案】Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements—for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language. If language had no such design feature, then it would be like animal communicational system which consists of only a number of basic sounds and this would be highly limited. Then we would not be able to produce a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words), which are distinct in meaning. In other words, the number of messages one can send would be restricted to the number of basic sounds.

7．One of the design features of human language is creativity. What is it? And what makes it possible?

【答案】The creativity of language means that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Creativity is a property unique to human language. It is one of design features that only human language has. Human language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. The speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form all infinite sets of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The fact that human language is recursive could be shown in that  words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that word before. For example, I could make a sentence like The old lady who is waiting for the girl who is talking to the boy who is playing with a basketball is my grandma. Recursiveness also includes coordination and subordination,conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic. recursiveness, together with openness, is generally regarded as the core of creativity of language.

8．Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationships between arbitrariness & onomatopoeic words and arbitrariness convention?

【答案】Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Onomatopoeic words are the words that sound like the sounds they describe. Only when people know the meaning can they infer that the linguistic sign is appropriate for the exact sound. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.

VI. Essay questions

1．What are the seven functions of human language?（人大2006研）

【答案】

According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions, and they are illustrated as follows:

(1) Informative function. It means that language is the instrument of thought and language serves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarative sentences such as “This is a book.” are the typical illustration of this function.

(2) Interpersonal function. The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society. It is the most important sociological use of language. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.

(3) Performative function. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate, the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.

(4) Emotive function. The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, for example, God, My, Damn it, Wow, Ugh, Ow, etc.

(5) Phatic communion. The phatic communion refers to the social interaction of language. People always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.

(6) Recreational function. The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.

(7) Metalingual function. The metalingual function refers to the fact that people can use language to talk about itself. For example, I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.

2．Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching?（北外2005研）

【答案】

Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world, we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study. Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguistic expressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meanings; the latter is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra.

The first implication for second language study involves the appropriate use of the target language. The teaching of a foreign language in a classroom involves two types of instruction: one is informational and analytical and can be diagrammed on the axis of general semantic information about the language. But language learning also has a crucially important skill component, which involves the development of the ability to use the language, actively through speaking and writing and passively through listening and reading. This is the pragmatic turn in second language teaching. The language use should be analyzed in relation to the context of communication, and that language teaching and learning should focus on the appropriate use of the target language, oral and written, according to situational and wider social context.

The second implication is concerned with vocabulary learning and translation. The learning of second language’s vocabularies involves the understanding and memory of their meanings. Since the differences between the first and second language’s culture, there may be no corresponding meaning underlying the same sayings. Teachers should explain the different usage or implication of the target language’s items. This is of much importance for cross-cultural translation practices.

3．Examine the following two statements about language，and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do you agree with the two statements? Explain your answer.

(1) Sapir (1921:Language): “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas，emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”(p.8).

(2) Bloch and Trager (1942: Outline of Linguistic Analysis): “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”(p.5). (北外2005研)

【答案】

Similarities:

(1) Both definitions stick to the fact that language is primarily a matter of speech because the primary medium of language is sound. Sapir illustrates this idea by implying that the produced 　symbols are auditory and Bloch and Trager by explicitly using the word “vocal”.

(2) Both definitions allude to the fact that the association between the words and the things that they denoted is rarely inherent, Sapir by using the word “symbols” and Bloch and Trager by placing emphasis on “arbitrary” and “symbols”.

Differences:

(1) Sapir’s definition emphasizes that language relates to communication between human beings. It is very different from the communication systems of other creatures, such as bird songs and bee dances. Bloch and Trager do not clearly indicate this property, only saying that it is possessed by a social group.

(2) Sapir also considers that language is “non-instinctive” and “voluntarily produced”. Thus for him language does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pain, etc. However, Bloch and Trager’s definition do not include this feature.

(3) The element “system” in Bloch and Trager’s definition reflects the fact that language provides us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than providing us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances. Still elements of lacunae are combined according to rules.

(4) The function of language is indicated differently in two definitions. Sapir sees language as for communicating ideas, emotions and desires, while Bloch and Trager considers it for a social group’s co-operation. Sapir’s definition proposes “communication” as the principal function of language and specifies what is communicated; Bloch and Trager only vaguely point out that language can be used for co-operation.

Each of the two definitions has its own special emphasis, and it is not totally free from limitations. We think the two definitions grasp some defining properties of language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, for example, “vocal”, “arbitrary”, “symbol”, “purely human”, “a system”. But either has some limitation. As for Sapir’s definition, whether one considers language to be instinctive or not is an issue. Language is instinctive in so far as we are all born with a predisposition to speak, we all acquire a language without tuition and when we speak we do not consciously convert our thoughts into speech. Language is, however, non-instinctive in that we can choose what to say or whether to say anything at all. Both the definition’s description of language’s function is not precise. Sapir’s definition confines language only to communicating ideas, emotions and desires, and Bloch and Trager’s definition does not point it out at all.

4．Shakespeare has Juliet say:

What’s in a name? That which we call a rose.

By any other name would smell as sweet.

What do the above lines say to you about the relationship between the form (sounds) and meaning (concept) of a word in spoken language? Explain with positive evidence as well as exceptions from the English language.(北外2004研)

【答案】

The lines said above show that the relationship between the form (sounds) and meaning (concept) of a word in spoken language is arbitrary in nature. That means there is no logical connection between forms (sounds) and meaning (concept). Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.

Sounds are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention. In this example, the rose can be called by many names in different languages but its smell never changes. Another example, different languages have different forms for referring to “dog” in English, such as Chinese “狗（gou）” , French “chien (n.m.)”. While language is arbitrary by nature, there are some exceptions as well. The best examples in English are the onomatopoetic words and compound words. For example, some onomatopoetic words “rumble”, “ crash”, “crackle” “ bang” are uttered like the sounds they describe, thus seem to have a natural basis. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example while “photo” and “copy” are both arbitrary, the compound word “photocopy” is not entirely arbitrary, thus seem to be motivated. Anyhow, non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language.

5．Make comments upon the relationship between arbitrariness, convention, and motivation.(四川大學2006研)

【答案】

Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative; a conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation, and makes learning a language laborious. The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.

The terms motivation and constraint describe the extent to which the signified determines the signifier. The form of the signifier of a generalized car or a traffic sign is determined by the convention that is accepted by the users of the code.

Motivated signs are iconic signs; they are characterized by a natural relation between signifier and signified. A portrait or a photograph is iconic, in that the signifier represents the appearance of the signified. The faithfulness or the accuracy of the representation—the degree to which the signified is re-presented in the signifier—is an inverse measure of how conventionalized it is. It is important to recognize that (i) in signs of high motivation, the signified is the determining influence, and (ii) in signs of low motivation, convention determines the form of the signifier. Therefore, convention plays a key role in our understanding of any sign. Convention serves as the social dimension of signs. We may not understand the unmotivated verbal sign for car the French use, but we understand the road signs in France in so far as they are iconic.

6．Illustrate the significance of studying speech Sounds in linguistics.(大連外國語學院2008研)

【答案】

Language is first and foremost a “system of vocal symbols”. Human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system, as we have seen in the discussion of language Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.

Analysis of speech sounds can be approached on two levels: phonetics and phonology. The formal deals with speech organs and their functions, speech sounds, waves carrying speech sounds, analysis and processing of the sounds by the listener. The latter is concerned with the organization of speech within specific languages, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular languages. Both phonetics and phonology are main branches of linguistics.

To study speech sounds, linguistics need to analyze the minute processes and activities of the speaker and explain the way speech organs move to convey meaning. The theory and methods thus developed can be applied to numerous other fields. For example, people who work in recording, language description and language teaching all have some interest in phonetic knowledge while those who work in audiology, speech therapy and speech pathology must have a solid foundation in phonetics and phonology.

7．Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward the concept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon the differences and similarities, if any, of the two pairs: langue and parole vs. competence and performance.（北京交通大學2007研）

【答案】

According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community; while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

For Chomsky, a fundamental distinction between linguistic competence and performance should be made. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. In light with this, competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, and thus would involve imperfections such as slips of tongue, false starts, unnecessary pauses, and so on. Thus, the point is that a speaker’s performance does not always match his competence.

Saussure’s distinction is somewhat similar with Chomsky’s in the sense that they both refer to the constant factor which underlies the utterances that constitute parole/ performance. However, their difference is quite obvious. Saussure’s language is a social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.

8．What are the three metafunctions of Systemic Functional Grammar? Illustrate each of them with specific examples.（武漢大學2011年研）

【答案】

According to Halliday, the adult’s language becomes much more complex and it has to serve many more functions, and the original functional is gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are three metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions.

First, the ideational function (“experiential” and “logical”) is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. Present in all language uses, the ideational function is a meaning potential, because whatever specific use one is making of language he has to refer to categories of his experience of the world.

The ideational function mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”. This function not only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural realisations. For example, John built a new house can be analysed as a configuration of the function roles:

Actor: John

Process: Material: creation: built

Goal: affected: a new house

Second, the interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act. Because the clause is not confined to the expression of transitivity, there are non-ideational elements in the adult language system.

Interpersonal function is realised by mood and modality. Mood shows what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee. If the speaker selects the imperative mood, he assumes the role of one giving commands and puts the addressee in the role of one expected to obey orders. Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgement or making a prediction. For example, “Give me that teapot!”

Mood is made up of two parts: the “Subject” and the “Finite” element. The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause.

Third, the textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. Although two sentences may have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they may be different in terms of textual coherence.

The textual function fulfils the requirement that language should be operationally relevant, having texture in a real context of situation that distinguishes a living passage from a mere entry in a grammar or a dictionary. It provides the remaining strands of meaning potential to be woven into the fabric of linguistic structure.

For example, analyze the sentence “John likes linguistics.” on three levels of metafunctions.

(考查韓禮德功能語法中三項元功能，并舉例說明。)

9．How do you compare the traffic light system with a human linguistic system?

【答案】

Both the traffic light system and human linguistic system can symbolize some information in communication whereas the linguistic system is more complicated. However, the linguistic system has several distinctive features that no other systems have, including the traffic light system.

(1) Language is arbitrary which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. But in traffic light system, there are direct logical connections between the light signals and their meanings.

(2) Language is hierarchical, that’s to say linguistic system has two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. However, the traffic light system has no hierarchical system and the structure is composed by a single level.

(3) Language is creative. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its excursiveness. Because of duality, speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. But there is no recursive nature in traffic light system which means that it can not produce new meaning.