第1章　語言學導論

1.1　復習筆記

本章要點：

1．The definition and the design features of language

語言的定義與特征

2．The origin and the function of language

語言的起源和功能

3．Main branches of linguistics study

語言學研究的范圍和內容

4．Important distinctions in Linguistics

語言學的一些重要區分

本章考點：

1．有關語言的常考考點

語言的定義；語言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多產性、移位性、文化傳遞和互換性）；

語言的功能（提供信息、人際交往、施為、表達情感、寒暄、娛樂、元語言）；

語言的起源（神授說，人造說(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“喲——嘿——吼”理論)，進化說）等。

2．有關語言學的常考考點

（1）語言學的定義，現代語言學與傳統語法學研究的三個顯著區別。

（2）語言學研究的四個原則及其簡要說明。語言學中幾組重要區別，每組兩個概念的含義、區分及其意義。

（3）普通語言學的主要分支學科及各自的研究范疇。

（4）宏觀語言學及應用語言學的主要分支及各自的研究范疇。

本章內容索引：

I. Definition of language

II. Design features of language

1．Arbitrariness

2．Duality

3．Creativity

4．Displacement

5．Cultural Transmission

6．Interchangeability

III. Origin of language

1．The Biblical account

2．The bow-wow theory

3．The pooh-pooh theory

4．The yo-he-ho theory

5．The evolution theory

IV. Functions of language

1．Informative function

2．Interpersonal function

3．Performative function

4．Emotive function

5．Phatic function

6．Recreational function

7．Metalingual function

V. Definition of linguistics

VI. Branches of linguistics

1．Microlinguistics

2．Macrolinguistics

VII. Important concepts and their distinctions

1．Descriptive vs. Prescriptive

2．Synchronic vs. Diachronic

3．Langue vs. Parole

4．Competence vs. Performance

5．Etic vs. Emic

6．Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Grammar

7．Linguistic Potential vs. Actual Linguistic Behavior

I. The definition of language (語言的定義)

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.

語言是人類以口頭交流的任意的符號系統。該定義揭示了語言的五個要素：系統，任意，口頭，符號，人類。

II. The design features of language (語言的定義特征)

【考點：名詞解釋&填空】

Design features refer to the defining properties of human languages that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

語言的定義特征是人類語言區別于其他動物交流系統的特點。

1．Arbitrariness (任意性)

It is the core feature of language, which refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. it is not entirely arbitrary at all levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.

任意性是語言的核心特征，是指符號的形式或者聲音與意義之間沒有邏輯或內在聯系。 雖然語言從本質上講是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。一些詞語，例如一些擬聲詞的發音與其意義還是有一定聯系的。

2．Duality (二重性)

Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements (e.g. sounds, letters) and units (e.g. words).

二重性是指擁有兩層結構的這種屬性，底層結構是上層結構的組成成分，每層都有自身的組合規則。二重性只存在于這樣的系統之中，既有元素又有它們組合成的單位。

3．Creativity (創造性)

Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.

創造性指語言的能產性，它能夠使人造出和理解無窮的長句，其中很多句子是以前從未聽過的。

4．Displacement (移位性)

Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.

移位性是指人類語言可以讓使用者在交際時用語言符號代表時間上和空間上并不可及的物體、事件和觀點。移位性賦予人們的概括和想象力使人類受益無窮。

5．Cultural Transmission (文化傳遞性)

Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.

語言不是靠遺傳，而是通過文化傳遞的。

6．Interchangeability (互換性)

Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.

互換性是指人可以是信息的發出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作為說話者和聽話者的角色是可以隨意更換的。

III. Origin of language (語言的起源)

1．The Biblical account (圣經的記載)

Language was God’s gift to human beings.

語言是上帝的恩賜。

2．The bow-wow theory (“汪汪”理論)

Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.

語言是模仿自然的聲音，例如動物的叫聲，如（鴨子）的刮刮聲，嘎嘎聲，布谷鳥的叫聲。

3．The pooh-pooh theory (“噗噗”理論)

Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expression of pain or joy.

語言來源于人本能的情感聲音，表達疼痛或喜悅。

4．The yo-he-ho theory (“喲——嘿——吼”理論)

Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.

語言起源于原始人共同勞動時發出的有節奏的哼喲聲。

5．The evolution theory (進化理論)

Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.

語言起源于勞動的過程，滿足了社會的需求。

IV. Functions of language (語言的功能)

【考點：判斷所描述的是語言的何種功能&名詞解釋】

1．Informative function (信息功能)

Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the most important function. Declarative sentences serve this function.

語言用來陳述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。信息功能是語言最重要的功能，一般出現在陳述句中。

2．Interpersonal function (人際功能)

The interpersonal function is considered as the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.

人際功能是語言最重要的社會功能。人們由此建立和維持他們的身份和社會地位。

3．Performative function (施為功能)

The performative function of language is primarily used to change the social status of persons, such as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.

語言的施為功能主要是用來改變人的社會地位，例如在婚禮、判刑，為孩子祈福和在首航儀式上為船命名、詛咒敵人。在這些言語行為中，語言通常是非常正式的，甚至是儀式化的。

4．Emotive function (感情功能)

The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.

語言的感情功能是語言最有用的功能之一，因為它在改變聽者贊成或反對某人、某物的態度上作用非常關鍵。

5．Phatic function (寒暄功能)

This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.

寒暄功能是指那些有助于確立和維持人際關系的表達，例如俚語、玩笑、行話、禮節性的問候、社會方言或地域方言的轉用等。

6．Recreational function (娛樂功能)

The recreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.

語言的娛樂功能是指純粹為了娛樂而使用語言，例如嬰兒的呀呀學語，歌者的吟唱。

7．Metalingual function (元語言功能)

The metalingual function refers to the fact that our language can be used to talk about itself.

語言的元語言功能是指語言可以用來討論語言本身。

V. Definition of linguistics (語言學的定義)

Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, the scientific study of language. It not only focus on a particular language, but is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The four principles which make linguistic a science are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.

語言學通常被定義為研究科學的語言，或對語言的科學研究。它不僅僅關注某種特定的語言，而是基于一些語言結構的綜合理論，對語料進行的系統研究。語言學研究的科學性可以歸納為：窮盡性、一致性、簡潔性以及客觀性。

VI. Branches of linguistics (語言學的分支)

1．Microlinguistics—Intradisciplinary divisions (微觀語言學)

Phonetics語音學

Phonology音系學

Morphology形態學

Syntax句法學

Semantics語義學

Pragmatics語用學

2．Macrolinguistics—Interdisciplinary divisions (宏觀語言學)

Psycholinguistics心理語言學

Sociolinguistics社會語言學

Applied linguistics應用語言學

Computational linguistics計算語言學

Neurolinguistics神經語言學

VII. Important concepts and their distinctions (重要概念及其區分)

1．Descriptive vs. Prescriptive (描寫式與規定式)

To say that linguistics is a descriptive science means that linguists tried to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness. Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. The distinction lies in describing how things are and prescribing how things ought to be.

把語言說成描述性的科學是說語言學家試圖發現和記錄同一語言共同體的成員所遵循的規則，并不是強加給它們其他規則或正確的標準。規定式的語言學目的在于為正確使用語言定下各種規則，一勞永逸地解決用法上的爭議。它們最主要的區別就在于前者描述事情怎樣而后者規定事情應該如何。

2．Synchronic vs. Diachronic (共時與歷時)

Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time. When we study language at a particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any points in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

語言研究可以是在一個給定的時間也可以是一段時間。當我們集中在某一點時間來研究語言時就叫做共時語言學。當我們研究隨著時間發展的語言時就叫做歷時語言學。共時語言學集中研究歷史任何時期點的語言現狀，而歷時語言學集中研究幾十年或幾百年的時期內兩個或比兩個更多的語言狀況的差異。

3．Langue vs. Parole (語言與言語)

Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.

索緒爾用語言和言語來區分說話者的語言能力和言語上(表達的)的實際表現或語料。語言是指一個語言群體的所有成員所共有的抽象的語言系統。言語是指語言的具體實現和運用。

4．Competence vs. Performance (語言能力和語言應用)

【考點：解釋Saussure和Chomsky的兩對概念的異同】

(1) Chomsky made the fundamental difference between competence and performance.

(2) A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.

(3) Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.

（1）喬姆斯基提出了語言能力和語言應用的根本區別。

（2）一名語言使用者對于語言規則系統的潛在認識稱為他的語言能力，

（3）語言運用指在具體場景中語言的實際運用。

5．Etic vs. Emic (唯素的與唯位的)

(1) Etic refers to the linguistic units containing “-etic”, for example, phonetic, morphetic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, and are first used to describe sounds.

(2) Emic refers to the linguistic units containing “-emic”, for instance, phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe abstract linguistic rules with distinctive features and are first used to describe phonemes.

（1）唯素的是指具有“素”的語言單位，如音素、詞素，是對語言事實的細節描寫，不具有區別性特征，最早用于音素描寫。

（2）唯位是指具有“位”的抽象語言單位，如音位、詞位，用來描述抽象的語言規則，具有區別性特征，最早用于音位描寫。

6．Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Grammar (傳統語法與現代語法)

Traditional grammar can be considered as prescriptive; it is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.

傳統語法是規定式的，是基于“高度的”書面語。它為語言使用者提供可供遵循的模式。但是現代語法是描寫式的，對法的研究是基于真實的并且主要是口語化的語言數據。它應該是比較科學和客觀的，而語言學家的任務也應該是描述人們如何在實際中使用語言，無論其是否“正確”。

7．Linguistic Potential vs. Actual Linguistic Behavior (語言潛勢與實際語言行為)

Halliday thinks that with language, there is a wide range of things that a speaker can do in the culture he is in. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed linguistic potential from a functional language’s view. What a speaker actually says on a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have is termed actual linguistic behavior.

韓禮德認為，通過語言說話者可以在其生活的文化環境里做一系列廣泛的事情。從語言功能的角度來看，“做”的可能性就被定義為語言潛勢。說話者在某一特定的場所對某個特定的個體來說，是從其所能說得多種可能的內容中挑選而來的。這種說話者從言語中所做的實際選擇就叫做實際言語行為。