第4章　句　法

4.1　復習筆記

本章要點：

1．Prescriptive approach and descriptive approach

規定法和描述法

2．Immediate constituent analysis

直接成分分析

3．Constituent structure grammar

成分結構語法

4．The “Standard Theory”

標準理論

5．Transformational grammar

轉換語法

6．Systemic-functional grammar

系統功能語法

常考考點：

句法的定義；詞類；喬姆斯基的經典理論；標準理論；深層結構；表層結構；成分；直接成分分析法的定義；句子成分；用實例進行分析，用直接成分分析法以及樹形圖分析句子的結構等。

本章內容索引：

I. Syntax

1．Definition

2．Word Classes

II. Two Approaches

1．The Prescriptive Approach

2．The Descriptive Approach

III. Structural analysis

1．The Constituent structure grammar

2．Immediate constituent analysis

(1) Definition

(2) Advantages

(3) Problems

IV. The Transformational grammar

1．Chomsky’s Classical Theory

2．The “Standard Theory”

(1) Deep structure and surface structure

(2) The “standard theory”

3．Syntactic Movement

(1) NP-movement

(2) Wh-movement

(3) Aux-movement

4．Move-α rule

V. Systemic-Functional Grammar

1．General Account

2．Three General Functions of Language

I. Syntax (句法)

【考點：名詞解釋】

1．Definition (定義)

Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.

句法就是研究語言不同成分組成句子的規則或句子結構成分之間的關系。

2．Word Classes (詞類)

The general word classes include：nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns and conjunctions.

常見的詞類包括：名詞、形容詞、動詞、副詞、介詞、代詞和連詞。

II. Two Approaches (兩種研究方法)

1．The Prescriptive Approach (規定式)

It is an approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century England, which views grammar as a set of rules for the “proper” use of a language, and it is still to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.

規定式把語法看成使語言正確應用的一系列的規則。

2．The Descriptive Approach (描寫式)

Throughout the 20th century, linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach and it is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.

描寫式就是描述實際應用中的語言的結構，而不是規定怎樣正確運用。它是近代語言結構探究的基礎。

III. Structural analysis (結構主義研究)

【考點：名詞解釋】

Its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language. The method involves the use of ‘‘test-frames’’ which can be sentences with empty slots in them. By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering what forms fit the slots in the test-frames, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language.

結構主義最主要的目標是研究語言的形態結構。它的研究方法包括“語言框架測試”。通過語言框架測試，我們能夠發現哪些適合某個語言框架，并對這些句子特征進行描寫。

1．The Constituent structure grammar (結構成分語法)

A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels, is referred to as a constituent structure grammar.

結構成分語法是指只用成分來分析句子的語法，它揭示了句子成分的層級結構。

2．Immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis) (直接成分分析法)

【考點：簡答——直接成分分析法的利弊】

(1) Definition (定義)

The immediate constituent analysis may be defined as：the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups(or phrases), which are in turn analyzed in to the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.

直接成分分析法先把句子分析為直接成分——詞組(或短語)，再把這些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，層層切分，直到最終成分為止。實際操作中，為了方便，通常切分到詞為止。直接成分分析法可以用括弧或樹形圖表示。

(2) Advantages (優點)

Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.

通過IC分析法，句子的內在結構可以清晰地展示出來，如果有歧義也會被揭示出來。

(3) Problems (問題)

①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.

②Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.

①開始的時候，一些提倡者堅持二元切分。任何結構體在任何層面都分成兩個部分。但實際上并不總是如此。

②含有不連續成分的結構體會給IC分析法的樹形圖造成技術困難。最嚴重的問題是有些結構的歧義不能用IC分析法來揭示和分析。

IV. The Transformational grammar (轉換語法)

1．Chomsky’s Classical Theory (喬姆斯基的經典理論)

In the earliest version of transformational grammar sometimes now called the “classical theory”-Chomsky put forward a model which consisted of three parts: a set of phrase structure rules, transformation rules and morphophonemic rules.

(1) The phrase structure rules were based on constituent structure analysis but formalised as a set of rules. Chomsky emphasized the generative aspect of such rules although any constituent structure grammar is generative by definition, that is, it can produce many sentences.

(2) Chomsky then introduced the idea of a set of transformation rules which could transform these simple “kernel” sentences S→NP+VP into a number of related sentences.

(3) The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules. Their function was to provide the correct morphological shape to the various parts of the structure and finally to give the appropriate phonological description.

喬姆斯基早期的轉換語法理論包括三個部分：短語結構法則、轉換法則和形態法則。

(1) 短語結構法則基于結構成分分析，并制定一系列法則。而喬姆斯基的短語結構法則更生成的方面。

(2) 喬姆斯基介紹了把核心句型S→NP+VP轉化成其他相關句子的準則，即轉化法則。

(3) 形態法則應用于生成法則的結果，它使得各個結構在形式上更合理，能夠給出合適的音系描寫。

2．The “Standard Theory” (標準理論)

(1) Deep structure and surface structure (深層結構和表層結構)

【考點：繪制一句子的深層/表層結構樹形圖】

The deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e., the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.

The surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.

深層結構是對一個結構體的句法屬性的抽象描述，即不同成分之間的結構關系的潛在層面。

表層結構是結構體句法派生過程的最后階段，與人們實際發送、接受的結構組織相符合。

(2) The “Standard Theory” (標準理論)

3．Syntactic Movement (句法移位)

It refers to the movement of any constituent in a sentence out of its original place to a new position.

句法移位是指一個句子的任意成分從原來的位置移到另一個新位置。

(1) NP-movement (NP移位)

It is relative to two constructions, i.e. passive sentence and raising construction. Generally, passive sentences are produced by the movement of the active sentences; in the raising construction, there are two kinds of raising which are raising verbs and raising adjectives.

NP移位涉及兩種結構：被動句和提升結構。一般認為，被動句是由主動句移位產生的。NP移位不僅發生在被動句，而且發生在提升結構中，主要有兩種提升結構：一類是含有提升動詞的結構，另一類是含有提升形容詞的結構。

(2) Wh-movement Wh-移位

The movement mostly takes place in wh-question sentences, indirect wh-question sentences and relative clauses.

主要發生在wh-問句，包括直接wh-問句和間接wh-問句以及關系分句中。

(3) Aux-movement Aux-移位

It refers to the movement of such words as be, have, do, may, can, shall, should and so on, from the original position to the beginning of the sentence.

是指諸如be, have, do, may, can, shall, should之類的助動詞從原來的位置移動到句首。

4．Move-α rule Move-α規則

It is a general movement rule which accounts for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.

這個規則是指任何成分可以移動到任何位置。

V. Systemic-Functional Grammar (Halliday’s approach) 功能學派 (布拉格語言學派)

1．General Account概述

The characteristics of the theory are systemic and functional. It characterized Halliday’s theory as more attention is paid to paradigmatic relations than to syntagmatic relations. And this is the main concern of Chomsky. What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions of language to its structures. He argues that there are three general functions of language: ideational, interpersonal and textual. And they are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.

該理論的特色是系統的和功能的，對聚合關系的關注比對組合關系關注更多，而喬姆斯基更關注組合關系。創新之處是，努力把語言功能跟結構聯系起來。認為有三種普遍的功能：概念功能、人際功能和語篇功能。它們跟三種語法系統相聯系：及物性、語氣和主位。

2．Three General Functions of Language  (語言的三個功能)

①The function in which we conceptualize the world for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.

②Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations, including communication roles such as questioner and respondent, and to express the language user’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. This function of language is called interpersonal function.

③Language also makes links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used. This is what enables the speaker or writer to construct a text, and enables the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences. This function of language is called textual function.

①我們根據個人或他人需要用語言把物質世界概念化的功能叫做概念功能。

②語言用來建立或保持身份和社會地位的功能叫做人際功能。比如交際角色中的發問者和回應者，表達說話人的觀點，以及對一段話的評論。

③語言也把言語本身與情境連接起來，這使得說話者或寫作者能夠形成語篇，也使得聽話人或讀者能夠區分雜亂無章的語句與有條理的語篇，這種功能叫做語篇功能。